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Zhang Qian (138-126 BCE)[Travellers | Cities | Routes | Trade Goods | Themes]
In 138 BC, the Han dynasty emperor Wudi (Wu-ti, r. 140–87 BC) sent Zhang Qian (Chang Ch’ien) to act as ambassador to the Yuezhi (Yüeh-chih), a people who then lived to the north-west of China. Both China and the Yuezhi were under attack from the Xiongnu (Hsiung-nu), who had recently murdered the Yuezhi king and insulted his memory by making a drinking vessel out of his skull. Emperor Wudi planned to negotiate an alliance with the Yuezhi against their common enemy, and sent Zhang Qian to make the arrangements. Little did anyone know that this diplomatic effort would have important implications for the rest of world history. After Zhang Qian’s embassy, Chinese silk was worn in the Roman empire, and the so-called ‘heavenly, blood-sweating’ horses of Ferghana were sought by successive Chinese emperors. Alfalfa and the vine were introduced into China, and embassies travelled back and forth between these major regions of the world. Zhang Qian’s journey, and the records he left behind describing the countries through which he travelled, stimulated future interaction between China and the worlds of Persia, India and the Hellenistic West. On the surface, Zhang Qian’s mission hardly seemed successful. Soon after setting out on his caravan journey to the north-west, he was captured by the Xiongnu and taken prisoner by their leader, the Shanyu or Great Khan. He remained in captivity for nearly ten years, although he was allowed to marry and have a son. Despite the passage of time, however, he never forgot his duty to the Chinese emperor. Keeping the imperial tallies (insignia of his office) by his side, he waited for an opportunity to escape. When it finally came, he headed westward to resume his search for the elusive Yuezhi. By the end of this ten-year interval, the Yuezhi, who had been besieged by the Xiongnu for many years, had fled the territory near the Chinese border, migrating thousands of miles to the west. Having crossed the Pamirs, they had become conquerors themselves, taking over the Greek kingdom of Bactria. After finding his way to Ferghana, Zhang Qian was led by local guides along the postal route to Bactria, where he discovered the Yuezhi in their new location. By now their situation was completely changed. No longer threatened by the Xiongnu, they were not interested in an alliance with China, and Zhang Qian was unable to fulfil his original mission. After about a year, Zhang Qian left the Yuezhi and set off towards China and home. Wary of being captured again, he took the Nanshan route this time, south of the Taklamakan Desert. Yet his cunning was to no avail – he was again taken prisoner by the Xiongnu. Luckily, he managed to escape after only one year by taking advantage of a power struggle among his captors after the Great Khan’s death. When he finally arrived in Chang’an (Ch’ang-an) in 126 BC, accompanied by his wife and son, only one person out of the original 100 in his entourage was still with him: his companion and servant Gan Fu (Kan Fu). Upon returning to China, Zhang Qian served the Han in several military campaigns against the Xiongnu. During this time his career went up and down. He was first honoured with the title of Marquis of Bowang (Powang) in 123 BC, then fell from favour and was demoted to the rank of private. His life ended on an upward turn, however, with his appointment as Head of the Office of Foreign Affairs, one of the top administrative offices of the Han empire. During one of his missions to a people in China’s north-west, the Wusun, he sent some assistant ambassadors further afield, to countries he had visited and heard about on his earlier travels to the West. Later on, these Chinese envoys returned to their homeland, accompanied by their foreign counterparts. Thus began regular contact and a growing understanding between China and the peoples of the West. Zhang Qian had repeatedly used the knowledge he had gained on his travels to advise the emperor. For instance, he had learned that certain goods he had seen in Bactria had been manufactured in China – in the region of Shu (modern Sichuan [Szechwan]) – and had come to Bactria via India. This led him to recommend to the emperor that southern trade routes (through present-day Yunnan and Burma) be explored, as alternatives to the hazardous northern routes. Although no official routes were established at the time, clearly trade was getting through, and later on these southern routes were important for trade with India and points west.
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Zhang Qian's Journey |
